The rapid proliferation of long-range threats such as ballistic and cruise missiles, loitering munitions and unmanned aerial vehicles in the Asia-Pacific region has prompted development of a range of indigenous countermeasures.
This threat environment is demonstrated in the region’s perceived need for stronger air defence capabilities to protect national interests and assert territorial claims. Indeed, robust air defence systems provide a deterrent against potential aggressors by raising the costs and risks associated with any military action. This strategic consideration is particularly relevant in the context of regional power dynamics and the desire to maintain stability.
China
Initially dependent on foreign weapon and sensor systems for its emergent requirements, the ground-based air defence (GBAD) and surveillance capabilities of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) have benefited from the introduction of a diverse range of contemporary technologies under a rapid modernisation effort across the entire service since the 1990s. More recently, the PLA appears to have demonstrated a specific interest in developing countermeasures to the growing threat of stealthy fifth-generation Western aircraft that are now populating Japanese and South Korean air force fleets.
China’s air defence network was already extensive by the time the Soviet Union collapsed, but it largely comprised nearly obsolescent Soviet radar and surface-to-air missile (SAM) systems acquired from Moscow in the 1960s. It was widely acknowledged that they provided little credibility against US airpower.
The primary SAM system in the PLA’s legacy GBAD network was the medium-range Hongqi 2 (HQ-2), a reverse-engineered derivative of the Soviet S-75 Dvina/SA-2 Guideline missile featuring indigenous improvements that enabled it to engage higher-speed threats. It had a modified missile body with increased fuel capacity, enlarged wing control surfaces, as well as a high-explosive warhead and electronic counter-countermeasures and semi-active radar homing capabilities.
Lower-altitude air defence is also supported by the short-to-medium-range HQ-6A and HQ-7A SAM systems. The HQ-6A is a 300kg, second-generation, indigenous weapon developed in the early 1980s, although its 3.99m-long and 280mm-diameter body physically resembles the Italian Selenia Aspide missile. Powered by a single-stage, solid-fuel rocket motor, the HQ-6A can travel at speeds of Mach 3, and it is believed to be capable of engaging low-flying threats out to a range of 10km and altitude of 8km.
The battery can also include the LD-2000 mobile gun system, which is essentially a ground-based variant of the Type 730 naval 30mm seven-barrelled close-in weapon system mounted on a Taian TA5450 truck chassis with an integrated Type 347G gunfire control radar, ammunition magazines and power supply. The vehicle’s mast-mounted, low-altitude search radar can also augment the battery’s early-warning radar.
The more contemporary HQ-16 family of medium-range SAM systems developed by the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC), and operationalised in around 2011, is believed to have benefited from Russian technical assistance, in particular from technologies derived from the 9M38E series of export missiles that China purchased for its Sovremenny-class and Type 052B guided-missile destroyers.
A typical HQ-16 unit comprises a command vehicle, search radar and up to four launch cells, the latter comprising a target acquisition radar and up to four transporter-erector-launchers (TEL). Each TEL is based on a Taian TA5350 6×6 chassis and is armed with a six-cell vertical missile launcher, which deploys the missiles via cold-launch techniques.
An improved model called the HQ-16B was unveiled in September 2016, this featuring an updated propulsion system comprising a dual-thrust, single-chamber, solid-fuel rocket motor, as well as redesigned control surfaces. An export variant designated the LY-80 is also offered by CASC via its Aerospace Long-March International Trade export arm. The system has been acquired by Pakistan and was commissioned in March 2017.
More recently, at the 2024 edition of Airshow China, the PLA publicly exhibited its HQ-19 missile system for the first time. Mounted on an 8×8 high-mobility truck and featuring a six-cell missile launcher configuration, the HQ-19 is designed to defend against ballistic-missile threats, and is widely considered to be the Chinese equivalent of the US Terminal High-Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system.
According to local sources, the HQ-19 missile employs a cold-launch propulsion arrangement. It can be launched at steep angles and intercept ballistic missiles and other high-altitude airborne threats at extended ranges. Meanwhile, its two-stage solid rocket motor is understood to feature a dual-pulse capability to improve terminal kinetics, enabling the hit-to-kill missile to manoeuvre flexibly during interception.
China’s Ministry of National Defense announced in early 2021 that the HQ-19 had met all testing requirements. A subsequent operational test of the missile system in mid-2022 – where it was claimed that it successfully intercepted a ballistic-missile target in midcourse – paved the way for fielding by the PLA.
India
India initiated a programme to develop its Long-Range Surface-to-Air Missile (LRSAM) system for the Indian Air Force (IAF) to strengthen its air defence capabilities under Project Kusha, according to local reports citing Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) officials.
The LRSAM programme is being led by the DRDO’s Defence Research and Development Laboratory, and will reportedly cost more than US$4 billion. It is envisaged to defeat aerial threats such as stealth fighters, aircraft, ballistic and cruise missiles, precision-guided munitions and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) out to tiered ranges of 150km, 250km and 350km depending on the missile variant. The IAF aims to operationalise the LRSAM by around 2028-29.
The DRDO has also developed the Medium Range Surface-to-Air Missile (MRSAM), a localised version of the Israeli Barak-8 SAM, in partnership with Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI), Rafael Advanced Defense Systems, as well as several local private- and public-sector companies. The MRSAM has already been deployed by the Indian Armed Forces, and it is capable of intercepting threats at ranges of up to 70km.
The Indian Ministry of Defence (MoD) reportedly contracted Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL) in January to deliver 70+ MRSAMs to the Indian Navy under a contract worth in excess of US$300 million. The new MRSAMs will arm the service’s future combat ships, and are said to feature a higher level of indigenous content.
In the short-range spectrum, the IAF has fielded the Surface-to-Air Missile for Assured Retaliation (SAMAR) system, following a successful live-fire test at Air Force Station Suryalanka in mid-December 2023.
Developed by 7 and 11 Base Repair Depots of the IAF’s Maintenance Command, in collaboration with Simran Flowtech Industries and Yamazuki Denki, the SAMAR repurposes the service’s existing inventory of Russian-made, infrared-homing Vympel R-73 and semi-active-radar-homing Vympel R-27 air-to-air missiles for the GBAD role. Neither missile types are any longer certified for aircraft use, but they have been reconditioned and reprogrammed to be deployed from an Ashok Leyland launcher vehicle.
According to local reports, the SAMAR-1 system offers a 12km range to address low-flying aerial threats such as aircraft, helicopters and UAVs. It is understood that the SAMAR system will eventually replace the IAF’s ageing Pechora air defence systems that have been in service since the 1970s.
Another Indian short-range air defence missile development is the Vertical-Launch Short-Range Surface-to-Air Missile (VL-SRSAM), an indigenous effort aimed at enhancing the aerial defence capabilities of Indian Navy combat ships. The VL-SRSAM is understood to have a length of approximately 3.8m, while its estimated top speed is Mach 4 and maximum range is believed to be between 40km and 50km.
According to the MoD, the VL-SRSAM is armed with a high-explosive, pre-fragmented warhead, and it relies on an inertial navigation system for midcourse flight, before switching to a radio frequency-based seeker for the terminal phase. The missile is designed to defeat aircraft as well as sea-skimming missiles.
A successful test was carried out from the MoD’s Integrated Test Range on 26 March. The MoD said in a statement that a VL-SRSAM round was launched from a land-based vertical launcher and intercepted a high-speed aerial target flying at low altitude and at “very close range”.
“During the test, the target was completely destroyed by the missile executing the high turn rate required for engaging targets at very close range, and establishing the missile’s agility, reliability and pinpoint accuracy,” said the MoD.
“The test was conducted with all weapon system elements deployed in combat configuration. These elements, including the missile with indigenous radio frequency seeker, multifunction radar and weapon control system, have performed as per expectations,” added the MoD.
South Korea
The Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) has given particular attention to protecting ground manoeuvre forces, and has consequently fielded dedicated short-range air defence systems for this requirement. Among these are Hanwha Aerospace’s Hybrid Biho, a self-propelled antiaircraft gun/missile system designed to address low-flying aerial threats including helicopters, missiles and UAVs.
The Hybrid Biho, based on a tracked chassis, is armed with two 30mm Oerlikon Contraves KCB-B cannons possessing a range of 3km, as well as two missile pods housing a pair of LIG Nex1 Shingung (Chiron) short-range SAMs. It also includes a TPS-830K X-band surveillance radar and panoramic electro-optical targeting system with thermal, TV and laser ranging.
The ROKA has also fielded the Chunma self-propelled SAM system, which combines S-band surveillance and Ku-band tracking radars with daylight TV and infrared cameras for all-weather detection of aerial threats at ranges of up to 35km. The Chunma is armed with jam-resistant VT-1 fragmentation missiles that offer an 11km effective range and maximum speed of Mach 3.5.
More recently, South Korea’s Defense Acquisition and Program Administration (DAPA) launched development of the next-generation Long-range Surface-to-Air Missile (L-SAM) system called the L-SAM II.
DAPA said in a 15 January statement that a KRW567.7 billion (US$389.8 million) investment is earmarked for the L-SAM II’s development through till 2028, and it will also involve the state-run Agency for Defense Development (ADD) and about 19 companies.
The agency noted that the L-SAM II will be capable of intercepting missiles at a higher altitude and at longer ranges than the original L-SAM system. Development of the L-SAM was completed in mid-2024, with serial production expected to commence this year. The L-SAM is designed to intercept ballistic missiles up to 150km away, and at altitudes between 40km and 100km. The system had been under development by the ADD and LIG Nex1 since 2019.
An L-SAM battery comprises a multifunction radar, command-and-control centre, combat control station and four truck-mounted launchers, two of which are equipped with antiaircraft and the other two with anti-ballistic missiles.
Earlier, DAPA announced in April 2023 that it had approved funding worth KRW2.71 trillion (US$1.86 billion) to develop the L-SAM II from 2024-35. This also entails research and development of a gliding-stage interceptor missile aimed at countering some of North Korea’s latest hypersonic weapons and intercontinental ballistic missiles.
South Korea is also accelerating development of the Low-Altitude Missile Defence (LAMD) system – nicknamed the “Korean Iron Dome” by some observers – by a year. The LAMD is a countermeasure against North Korean long-range artillery. DAPA noted in January 2024 that further development and production of the LAMD system would be carried out from 2025-28.
This effort is being led by the ADD with industrial partner LIG Nex1, which began conceptualisation and early development of the system in 2022. Core developmental activities were completed around June 2023.
Taiwan
Facing an ever-growing threat from PLA Air Force aircraft and UAVs, Taiwan has begun fielding its indigenously developed Sky Bow III SAM systems at existing MIM-23 Hawk and Sky Bow II air defence launch sites. Taiwan’s Ministry of National Defense reported to the Legislative Yuan in October 2023 that it would update Hawk and Sky Bow II sites to support the newer and more capable Sky Bow III system by the end of 2026.
The Sky Bow III was developed by the National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology (NCSIST) to address the threat of Chinese tactical ballistic missiles. Based on the earlier Sky Bow I and II systems, it is similar in physical configuration, although it features much better performance and is guided by the latest Long White mobile phased-array radar. It is believed to be as effective as the US-made Patriot PAC-2 system.
Taiwan is also fielding a land-based version of the short-to-medium-range Sky Sword II air-to-air missile called the Land Sword II. A Land Sword II system comprises a CS/MYS-951 battle management centre, five missile launcher units and a CS/MPQ-951 radar unit. A recent test was conducted by the Republic of China Army’s 43rd Artillery Command and 21st Artillery Command to verify the effectiveness of the adapted system.
It is understood that several Land Sword II SAM systems, which are also developed and manufactured by NCSIST, have already been delivered to the ROCA from late 2023 onwards.
The increasing investment in air defence systems by Asia-Pacific countries is a multifaceted phenomenon driven by regional security dynamics, technological advancements and strategic considerations. This trend is likely to continue as countries in the region seek to enhance their defensive capabilities and maintain strategic stability in a deteriorating security environment.
by Jr Ng